Native American Shamanism, The Medicine Man
The primary function of these "medicine men" (who are not always
male) is to secure the help of the spirit world, including the Great Spirit
(Wakan Tanka in the language of the Lakota Sioux), for the benefit of the
community.
"Medicine man" is a western term used to describe Native American
religious community figures. The meaning of the term is similar to that of
"shaman". The word "medicine man" has been widely criticized
by Native Americans, and various scholars.
The term "shaman" is believed to have originated among the Siberian
Tungus (Evenks) and the literal translation of shaman is "he (or she)
who knows". In some theosophical circles it's also believed that the
words Shaman may have derived from Sanskrit through the confusion of the words
shamanism and shramanism. There is a strong shamanistic influence born on
central Asian and Tibetan Buddhism which also uses Sanskrit, so perhaps there
is an overlap from popular etymology, if not a direct linguistic influence.
In Lakota traditions, Wakan Tanka is a term for "The Great Spirit"
which resides in every thing, similar to many notions of God. Every creature
and object has a wakan, such as wakan tanka kin, the wakan of the sun.
Sometimes the help sought can be for the sake of healing disease, sometimes
it can be for the sake of healing the psyche, sometimes the goal is to promote
harmony between human groups or between humans and nature. So the term "medicine
man" is not entirely inappropriate, but it greatly oversimplifies and
also skews the depiction of the people whose role in society complements that
of the chief. These people are not the Native American equivalent of the Chinese
"barefoot doctors", herbalists, or of the emergency medical technicians
who ride our rescue vehicles.
Recognition as a Shaman / Medicine Man
To be recognized as the one who performs this function of bridging between
the natural world and the spiritual world for the benefit of the community,
an individual must be validated in his role by that community.
Two-Spirit
Berdache (from French, from Arabic bardajo meaning "kept boy") is
a generic term used by some for a third gender (woman-living-man) among many,
if not most, Native American tribes. There are terms for these individuals
in the various Native American languages, and the term "berdache"
is frequently rejected as inappropriate and offensive by Native Americans,
many of whom prefer Two-Spirit, which usually implies a man spirit, and a
woman spirit, living in the same body.
These individuals are often viewed as having two spirits, and two sexes, at
the same time. Their dress is usually mixture of male and female articles.
They have distinct gender and social roles in their tribes. For instance,
there was one ceremony during the Sun Dance that was performed only by a member
of this group.
Two-spirit individuals perform specific social functions in their communities.
Some are counsellors, therapists of sorts, while others are shamans or spiritual
functionaries. They study skills including story telling, theatre, magic,
hypnotism, healing, herbal medicine, ventriloquism, singing, music and dance.
The word "berdache", though not universal, is most often used today
to signify a traditional cross gendered "male" performing in a shamanic
function in any society from Native American (with the above semantic caveat)
to Siberian to Island-Pacific.
A little Bird Told Me
Generically, Shaman refers to analogous functions in other cultures, such
as the North American hunter-fishermen culture's "medicine man"
or the African agricultural's "Witch doctor", or sangoma. Shamans
have existed in most parts of the world, and the ancient shamans of Europe
are more or less distantly remembered as druids, ba'ale shem and völvas,
and in fairy tales as wizards and witches. Fairy tales and even the language
of everyday life include frequent references to knowledge obtained because
"a little bird told me," which is a remnant of the idea that shamans
can communicate directly with animals. In the western world many of the roles
of shamans have been replaced by (or evolved into those of) priests, scholars
and doctors.
Joseph Campbell described the essential difference between priest and shaman:
"The priest is the socially initiated, ceremonially inducted member of
a recognized religious organization, where he holds a certain rank and functions
as the tenant of an office that was held by others before him, while the shaman
is one who, as a consequence of a personal psychological crisis, has gained
a certain power of his own."
Shamans are usually credited with the ability to speak to spirits and perform
feats of magic such as astral projection and healing. Shamans are usually
found in tribal cultures with nature religions and beliefs in ancestor spirits,
though some persons in modern Western cultures also consider themselves to
be shamans. The shaman's office is frequently held to be hereditary and his
ancestral spirits may act as his chief conduits for spiritual aid. However,
the most powerful shamans are those who have a natural aptitude for the calling.
These individuals easily enter into the separate reality of the spirits, and
do so without the need of drugs or other artificial support.
Chosen by the spirits, not by the people
Tradition also holds that a shaman is chosen by the spirits, not by the people.
A shaman may be initiated via a serious illness, by being struck by lightning,
or by a near-death experience, and there usually is a set of cultural imagery
expected to be experienced during shamanic initiation regardless of method.
Such imagery often includes being transported to the spirit world and interacting
with beings inhabiting it, meeting a spiritual guide, being devoured by some
being and emerging transformed, and/or being "dismantled" and "reassembled"
again, often with implanted amulets such as magical crystals. The imagery
generally speaks of transformation and granting powers, or of traveling the
other world and making useful contacts with spirits there.
One of a shaman's main functions is to protect individuals from hostile supernatural
influences. He or she deals with a range of spirits, performs sacrifices and
procures oracles. The shaman may act as psycho pomp, conducting the spirits
of individuals who have just died to the proper refuge for dead spirits. Shamanistic
traditions often include induction of trance through natural drugs (often
neurotoxins known to be hallucinogens), chanting, fasting, dancing and music.
The drum is an important instrument in shamanic ceremonies, as it is commonly
used to induce auto-hypnotic phenomena. Researchers also suspect that in some
cultures schizophrenia or similar conditions may predispose an individual
to the role of shaman. That view is a negative interpretation of the same
insight that is enunciated by many shamanic cultures -- that the best shamans
spontaneously perform their functions.
The Shaman's Medicine Bag
A Medicine Bag is a traditional North American Indian container for various
items of supernatural power. While anyone may have one, usually it would be
the medicine man, or shaman, of a tribe who would carry one. As something
that holds supernatural items, the medicine bag must also have some power
of its own.
Medicine items attributed with various supernatural abilities for the bag
would often be procured in a tribal custom known as a vision quest. This ceremony
includes personal sacrifice: fasting and prayer over several days in a location
isolated from the rest of the community, often involving hallucinogens. The
purpose was to make contact with natural spiritual forces that help or guide
people to reach their potential. The spirits or totems would aid the individual
to gather magical items, increase knowledge and aid personal growth.
Typical powers ascribed to medicine bags and their items include increasing
hunting abilities, aiding fighting skills, healing allies, hindering enemies
and altering the weather.
Vision Quest
The vision quest is a rite of passage in some Native American cultures. Vision
quest preparations involve a time of fasting, the guidance of a tribal Holy
Man and sometimes ingestion of natural hallucinogens. The quest itself is
usually a journey alone into the wilderness seeking personal growth and spiritual
guidance. Native American totems can speak through all things and messages
or instructions often come in the form of an animal or bird. Generally a physical
representation of the vision or message such as a feather, fur or a rock is
collected and placed in the seeker's medicine bag to ensure the power of the
vision will stay with the individual to remind, protect or guide him.
The Practice of Shamanism and the New Age Movement
The New Age movement imported some ideas from shamanism in general and core
shamanism in particular. As in other such imports, original users of said
ideas frequently condemn New Age use as ill-understood and superficial.
At the same time, there is an endeavour in occult and esoteric circles to
re-invent shamanism in a modern form drawing from core shamanism, various
indigenous forms of shamanism, and chaos magic. This is mostly focused upon
in Europe, where the ancient shamanic tradition was exterminated by the Christian
church and where people compelled to be shamans often find it improper to
use shamanic systems rooted in other parts of the earth. Various traditional
shamans express respect for this endeavour and in this, separate it sharply
from "light" New Age shamanism.
Many Westerners also claim to be shamans. If a self-described shaman isn't
speaking of a Tungusic-speaking ethnic group, he or she is probably a huckster
preying on New Age followers. Most commonly they will claim Cherokee or Sioux
ancestry, the former because Cherokee ancestors are a common story in one's
genealogy, and the latter because of all the Westerns, especially Dances with
Wolves. The risk for studying under such people varies from simply losing
money to rape and even death in an ill-fated sweat lodge. (no
citation available)
For natives, the danger is that their voices will be drowned out by self-styled "shamans".